Screen readers were therefore forced to employ new low-level techniques, gathering messages from the operating system and using these to build up an 'off-screen model', a representation of the display in which the required text content is stored. A GUI has characters and graphics drawn on the screen at particular positions, and therefore there is no purely textual representation of the graphical contents of the display. With the arrival of graphical user interfaces ( GUIs), the situation became more complicated. In the 1980s, the Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped ( RCEVH) at the University of Birmingham developed a Screen Reader for the BBC Micro and NEC Portable. All this information could therefore be obtained from the system either by hooking the flow of information around the system and reading the screen buffer or by using a standard hardware output socket and communicating the results to the user. In early operating systems, such as MS-DOS, which employed command-line interfaces ( CLIs), the screen display consisted of characters mapping directly to a screen buffer in memory and a cursor position. 1.3 Self-voicing programs and applications.There are also free and open source screen readers for Linux and Unix-like systems, such as Speakup and Orca. Similarly, Android-based devices from Amazon provide the VoiceView screen reader. Apple Inc.'s macOS, iOS, and tvOS include VoiceOver as a built-in screen reader, while Google's Android provides the Talkback screen reader and its Chrome OS can use ChromeVox. Microsoft Windows operating systems have included the Microsoft Narrator screen reader since Windows 2000, though separate products such as Freedom Scientific's commercially available JAWS screen reader and ZoomText screen magnifier and the free and open source screen reader NVDA by NV Access are more popular for that operating system. They do this by applying a wide variety of techniques that include, for example, interacting with dedicated accessibility APIs, using various operating system features (like inter-process communication and querying user interface properties), and employing hooking techniques. Screen readers are software applications that attempt to convey what people with normal eyesight see on a display to their users via non-visual means, like text-to-speech, sound icons, or a braille device. Screen readers are essential to people who are blind, and are useful to people who are visually impaired, illiterate, or have a learning disability. An example of someone using a screen reader showing documents that are inaccessible, readable and accessible.Ī screen reader is a form of assistive technology ( AT) that renders text and image content as speech or braille output.

What is a screen reader for blind